© Roman Kritsberh, Ukraine

Language differences, the ways people speak depend on cultural environment where language functions. Language variation can be viewed through different perspectives. First, from sociohistorical dimension: geographical factors, language contacts, economic ecology, social stratification of society, migration, religious beliefs, etc. make the social and historical conditions that cause language changes. Our cognitive perceptions, the ways people form concepts of the surrounding world, the subjects to change per se, also contribute to language variation and change. Thirdly, pure languages changes, such as analogy, folk etymology, ellipsis, etc. come into play, as well.

Of those, the first set of cultural factors is of primary importance. The objective of this paper is to highlight socioeconomic characteristics and their correlation with linguistic variation in historical perspective. In other words, it is about weighing the significance of religious beliefs, superstitions, occupation, social status, education, world-view of a given time, gender issues, etc. in diachronic scale and comparing them with modern social and cultural variables.

Old English texts (Beowulf, Historia ecclesiastica, etc.), works by G. Chaucer in Middle English (The Canterbury Tales), and plays by W. Shakespeare in early Modern English serve as material for this study.

Thus in the poem “Beowulf”, the culture of Scandinavian people of the 6-7^th cc. is shown through the language. Notions related to ‘sea’, ‘warriors’, and ‘warfare’ are the most prominent in the poem, allowing for the lifestyle of the characters. The sea is described as ýð-geblond “surge of waves”, wind-geard “home of the wind”, segl-rāde “sail-road”, brim-strēam “current sea, rapid, river”, brim-lāde “sea-way”, ganotes bæð “sea-bird’s bath”, 1863; hron-rāde “whale’s road”, etc.

Other motifs of this epic zero in on clash of pagan and Christian beliefs, especially God as  Līf-frēa “Lord of life” or wuldres Wealdend “world’s ruler”, Fæder al-walda “Father of all the world”, hālig Dryhten “Holy Lord”, ēce Drihten “everlasting Lord”, “will help change evil tidings” (…wille æfter wēa-spella wyrpe gefremman”, etc.

The rulers and kings are mostly characterized by “glory”, “triumph”, “honor”, “courage”, “benevolence”, as wine-drihten “friendly lord (lord and friend)”, helm Scyldinga “protector of Shieldings”, brego Beorht-Dena “ruler of glorious Danes”, glæde Scyldingas “brilliant, gracious Shield”, glæd-man Hrōðgār “kind, gracious Hrothgar”.  They enjoy love and reverence of their subjects:  lēof lēod-cyning “dear ruler”, folcum gefǽrge “renowned by the people”, weoroda rǽswan “sweet princes”, although their violent temper is also visible: meodo-setla oftēah “(he) mead-banks dragged”, along with fear they instill on their neighbors, as sceaþena Þrēatum “warriors’ threat”, gūð-rēouw “fierce in battle” (58), gūð-cyning “king of battle”. Generosity is appreciated much, as feoh-gift “bounty-giving”, or bēaga brytta “ring-giver”, “lord”, sige-rōf kyning “victorious king”.

Apart from that, elaboration on death and evil in many shapes, treasure and decoration, destiny or fate that cannot be avoided are highlighted in the poem. On the contrary, gender issues, social stratification, and alien cultures are less conspicuous.

Language of G. Chaucer and W. Shakespeare in The Middle Ages reflects the Weltanshauung of that time. The geocentric views on the Universe, astrology, alchemy, superstitions of every kind, witchcraft and sorcery, medieval scientific knowledge, negative assessment of women and people of other cultures, religious intolerance of non-Christian beliefs, corresponding diversions, occupations and pastimes (as hawking, hunting, and fencing), etc., all those factors found their expression in the language of that epoch.

Thus in W. Shakespeare, the witches are making the potion of:

“Liver of blaspheming Jew,

…Nose of Turk, and Tartar’s lips

…Make the gruel thick and slab”. (Macbeth. IV. i. 26.29.32).  

Alienation of different cultures is clearly manifested through religious perspective, in particular, opprobrium of non-Christian beliefs. Thus, in The Middle Ages maumetry meant “false religion, heathenism, idolatry” (maumet “false god, idol”) from erroneous notion that the prophet Muhammad was worshiped as god and negative connotation with Islam.

   One culture’s lack of tolerance and hospitality towards other cultures is actualized in the process of borrowing lexical items with their further assimilation in the new environment. The word macabre has a clear-cut negative connotation in English (and other European languages) as well as in French whence it was borrowed and where apart from the sense “suggesting the horror of death and decay, gruesome” it has the blunt meaning “referring to a corpse, human remnants”. Its etymology shows connection to Maccabee “epithet for Jewish patriot Judas Maccabæus”, generally “his supporter, followers, martyrs, fighters for peace” after recorded Jewish revolt against Antiochus IV (175 – 164 B.C.) led by Judas. The word with positive evaluation in the Jewish culture and Hebrew language was shifted in French as in danse Macabre “dance of death” and then to macabre with hostile connotation.

   Another example of that kind is Sabbath. Originally a Jewish holy day of rest “Saturday” has shifted its application to “night-meeting demons, witches and other evil forces presided over by the Devil” in most of European languages mainly because of clash between Jewish and Christian cultures and the prejudice against the former in medieval Europe.

   In its turn, the word assassin established in many European languages and containing negative evaluation came from Arab hashīshīyyin plural of “hashish-eater” with matter-of-fact designation which was used about some Muslim fanatics who in the time of the Crusades intoxicated themselves with drugs and were sent by their chiefs to murder Christian invaders.

In the Middle Ages, male-dominated world, language reflects the bias against the fair sex. This very often shows itself in semantic shift when derogatory notions first applied to men gradually crept over the line to be referred exclusively to the better part of humans.

It is manifested in negative connotation of women in many items (by the end of early Modern English) that originally were referred to men, as in G. Chaucer’s work:

“He was a gentil harlot and a kind;

A better felawe sholde men noght fynde” (Prologue. 647-8). 

A similar development is observed in the words bawd and brothel. The former as “pander, go-between, procurer in sexual debauchery”, in most cases originally had been masculine, but since 1700 is used about women-keeper of a brothel. The latter brothel in the 14^th c. stood for “a worthless fellow, good-for-nothing”, then from 15^th c. on took it out on women with the sense “prostitute, whore” to substitute for the earlier bordel as “a house of prostitution” (women-only) beginning with the 16^th century.

Language changes are conditioned also by our knowledge of the environment, social development, technical progress, etc. In ancient and medieval science, for example, the nature consisted of four elements: earth, water, air and fire with each having the corresponding qualities: dry, moist (or humid), cold and hot and matching corresponding humors (blood – air, black choler – earth, phlegm – water and choler – fire). The earth was dry and cold, water – moist and cold, air – moist and cold, fire – dry and hot. The combination of those elements was thought to make up four humors (fluids) in human’s body that determined their character: blood, phlegm, choler and melancholy (or black choler). In the healthy organism antagonizing humors were balanced while an excess of one or more of those caused diseases. From the ideas of humors those of emotions developed in the words: melancholy had another derivative sense “ill-temper, irascibility”, choler – “anger, heat of temper, wrath”, phlegm – “coldness, dullness, apathy”, sanguine – “hopefulness, confidence of success” that later laid ground for main human characters.

Some vital body organs were considered in ancient times as seats of emotions and feelings; liver – the seat of love and violent passions, heart – the center of vital functions, the seat of life, the life itself; mind – the center of intellectual abilities, bowels used to stand for “off-springs, descendents”.

Geocentric views on the Universe prevailed in the Renaissance age. Sphere e.g., was a transparent, concentric hollow globe that, according to medieval astronomers’ belief, revolves around the Earth carrying on it the Moon (and other planets and stars) fixed thereon. The very notions of many things have undergone considerable changes due to development of human knowledge. Thus, the mediaeval telling difference between “fixed” stars and “wandering” planets was, according to Ptolemaic system, that the former were “fixed” to non-transparent sphere (firmness), while the latter with their own transparent one revolved additionally around the center on the surface of the sphere (so-called epicycles). In such way apparent divergences between planets’ course and stars on firmament were accounted for.

Superstitions keep playing a very important role in any culture and language registers these believe. During the reign of James the First, for example, who was obsessed with witchcraft and sorcery and published his Demonology, the ruling of superstition “was, for a time, not only upheld, but extended” among both the court and inferior orders of the people. Children of that time were intimidated into obedience by admonishing them with elves, hags, satyrs, sirens, and the like. People used to shun the room where somebody had died, the spot where a drunken farmer had broken his neck, was considered to be haunted and impassible. Omens predictive of good and bad fortune have no termination in popular belief. People attached too much significance to meeting a cat or hare on their ways, stumbling at a threshold, putting their shirt on the wrong side, etc. The most of current of omens were “lamenting heard in the air; shakings and trembling of the earth; sudden gloom at noon-day; the appearance of meteors, the shooting of stars, eclipses of the sun and moon … the shrieking of owls; the croaking of ravens; the shrilling of crickets, the night-howling of dogs… the chattering of pies; the wild neighing of horses…and strange and fearful noises”.  W. Shakespeare’s plays abound in such predictions. In Macbeth after King Duncan had been murdered Lady Macbeth says “I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry” (Macbeth. II. ii. 17).

Symbolism of plants finds its telling expression in the Ophelia’s mad monolog (IV. v. 163-219) where rosemary stands for remembrance (“pray. Love, remember”), pancy – for thought, fennel is a symbol of flattery, columbine suggested allusion to cuckoldry, rue has homonymic association with “sorrow, distress, repentance, regret” (due to archaic and dialectic item rue), daisy used to refer to frivolity, inconsistency, levity; and violet – to true love (“they withered all when my father died”.

   There have been considerable changes in people’s occupation that are reflected in the language. Thus, formerly barbers practiced dentistry and surgery. “The Company of Barber-surgeons was incorporated by Edward IV 1461. Under Henry VIII barbers and surgeons were restricted to the practice of dentistry, later in 1746 they were separated into two corporations”. 

   Originally apothecary was a storekeeper of spices, drugs and other imperishable commodities. And only in 1617 Apothecaries’ Company of London was separated from the Grocers’. Cadger in former time was an itinerant dealer who traveled around the country collecting domestic products (milk, butter, eggs) from farmers in remote areas bringing them some domestic ware in exchange. This occupation seems to have made an imprint on the current sense of the word, one that begs or makes his/her living by dubious means.

Blackguard before acquiring the modern sense of opprobrium underwent considerable changes, as well. It was one of three professions that laid foundation for such connotation: torchbearers at funerals, linkboys on the streets of London (link was a torch in former times to light way at nights) or a guard of soldiers at Westminster that presumably enjoyed ill reputation. Later the word was applied to the lowest menials of noble household who were in charge of pots and pans and used to carry those from one residence to another, as well as to attendants or camp-followers, henchmen.

   Broker before acquiring modern sense originally referred to a tapster who retailed wine from the tap (Old Northern French brokier “to broach, tap a cask”) then it changed to “any retail dealer, one who bought to sell again”, “second-hand dealer”, “jobber, middleman”. All these examples show how the changes in human professions and trades triggered semantic changes.

As for the stylistic aspect, a marked shift towards informality started in Middle English. Religious beliefs in the medieval Europe from 11-13^th cc. were going through the big changes. The spirit of Christian cut across people’s social rank, degree and position in society: town-people and villagers, nobility and peasants, intellectuals and common priests. The Mendicant Orders and small groups of “poor men of Christ” spread like a wildfire. Popular religious movements ranged from left to right, from orthodox to heretical reflected disenchantment with the hypocrisy of the Roman church, on the one hand, on the other, expressed the nascent Renaissance awareness of one’s inward freedom, liberation and human values.

Europe in that time abounded with itinerant preachers, wandering monks, self-proclaimed prophets and hermits, foot-loose and fancy-free vagabonds of all kinds who hit the road to earn their daily bread by preaching, begging or laboring. This preaching and migration had degenerated quickly into free lifestyle and promoted coming into life new vernacular forms of speech that might have laid foundation for slang.

Linguistic behavior or language forms nowadays are conditioned by several agents: regional belonging, ethnicity, social stratification, occupation, gender, level of education, etc. The hierarchy or the overall ranking of such variables is still a moot point in modern sociolinguistics. Comparing them with those in diachrony, one can make preliminary observation:

1) regional distinction holds its ground in language variation;

2) ethnicity as an agent is marked-up, due to melting pot of English;

3) gender factors are downsized in speech behavior;

4) intolerance of people of other cultures and religious beliefs is still on the run hiding in covert forms;

5) social status differences in language forms became more subtle (or less explicit) being overshadowed by level of education;

6) occupational factors developed and grew much more diversified.

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